The division of Koreas was an accident of history, a consequence of an intense political struggle between two superpower states eager to acquire use of the Korean peninsula for their own strategic and global ambitions. Once a unified nation for over a millenium, then sliced into rival governments who have since drifted so far apart and took so vastly different paths that it is now said they are different worlds.
North Korea, setting out as what was intended to be another Soviet Satellite state, would take a very different path from its counterparts, drifting from the global communist movement towards the deeply held nationalistic dreams of reunification and its own recognition. After its unsuccessful attempt to capture the South in the Korean war, it sought to manipulate the Soviet Union and China against each other to reap the best of worlds and avoid its own domination. Later, as the wider Communist world disintegrated to dust, this dream of reunification shattered into a nightmare struggle for its own political survival in a hostile and estranged world. Nonetheless, North Korea has battled on, often always at the expense of its own people, and despite numerous endless predictions, shows no signs of iminent collapse.
This is the story of North Korea, the most eccentric, misunderstood and unique nation on Earth. As authors have coined it, "the impossible state" (Victor Cha), "the state of paranoia" (Paul French), "the secret state" (John Sweeney) and so on. It is a country which contains to fascinate, shock, horrify and (to some) amuse the world. But how can we judge it if we do understand it? Visiting North Korea is also about understanding, and that's what we're doing here.
North Korea, setting out as what was intended to be another Soviet Satellite state, would take a very different path from its counterparts, drifting from the global communist movement towards the deeply held nationalistic dreams of reunification and its own recognition. After its unsuccessful attempt to capture the South in the Korean war, it sought to manipulate the Soviet Union and China against each other to reap the best of worlds and avoid its own domination. Later, as the wider Communist world disintegrated to dust, this dream of reunification shattered into a nightmare struggle for its own political survival in a hostile and estranged world. Nonetheless, North Korea has battled on, often always at the expense of its own people, and despite numerous endless predictions, shows no signs of iminent collapse.
This is the story of North Korea, the most eccentric, misunderstood and unique nation on Earth. As authors have coined it, "the impossible state" (Victor Cha), "the state of paranoia" (Paul French), "the secret state" (John Sweeney) and so on. It is a country which contains to fascinate, shock, horrify and (to some) amuse the world. But how can we judge it if we do understand it? Visiting North Korea is also about understanding, and that's what we're doing here.
The Genesis of North Korea
The Japanese signing the surrender document at the end of WWII
The Japanese signing the surrender document at the end of WWII
It's 1945, World War II is almost at an end. Adolf Hitler is dead, the Nazis have surrendered in Europe. The Soviet Union, battered and bruised by the deadliest battle theatre in history have captured Berlin. But in the pacific, the war wages on. The Empire of Japan shows no signs of surrendering against the allies, the U.S. have a full invasion planned out. However, despite having fought together against the Nazis, an uneasy tension and hostility has emerged between the allies concerning "who gets what" after the conflict comes to an end. Before World War II even ended, signs of the Cold War emerged. Stalin became anxious about an increased American presence in East Asia, for as the Russo-Japanese war demonstrated, those in the far-east have the ability to strategically injure Russia. Stalin recognized that a sole American victory against Japan would allow them to take all the spoils of religning the post war region, this was undesirable, the soviet union needed their own stake in East Asia.
As a result, as the War in Europe was over, Stalin entered the war against Japan and invaded Japanese held Manchuria on the 9th August, 1945. Very quickly, the Soviet Union crushed the Japanese forces. From China, the Soviet Union moved through Northern China and entered the Northern half of the Korean peninsula. On the very same day however, the United States dropped an Atomic bomb on Nagasaki (having done the same to Hiroshima 3 days before). Four days later, Japan surrendered, to America. Through the use of the atomic bomb, the United States had secured their strategic edge against the soviets in the emerging field of tensions. Whilst Stalin's invasion of Manchuria and the North of Korea had bought him some strategic space, he had failed in his attempt to gain a slice of the Japanese pie. Eyes from both sides now turned to what was left over, namely, the Korean peninsula.
As stated, the Soviets had occupied the Northern half of the Korean peninsula, the United States, despite having gained Japan's surrender, had not lost interest in the strategic value of Korea. As a result, they hammered out an agreement with the Soviet troops who entered Korea to stop their advance southwards, drawing a line on the 38th parralel of the map. The Korean peninsula was to be "temporarily" divided into two zones of occupation, for stated "administrative reasons" (masking the real political aims from both sides), thus the United States occupied the Southern half and the Soviet Union occupied the North. Korea was divided. It was supposed to be a "temporary" measure, but 70 years later we're still waiting.
Korea was divided at the 38th parralel
The plan for the eventual independence of a unified Korea, never materalized. It was lost quickly in the heat of Cold War tensions as the struggle for the future of post-war Germany mirrored the same events over the west. Both sides, distrustng of the motives of the other, refused to withdraw their troops and rather than cooperate on a future unified administration, actively sought to defy the other by creating a Korean government to represent their interests claim control over the whole Korean peninsula. The divide became permanent. The United States established a government in the South led by staunch anti-Communist Syngman Rhee. On August 15th, 1948, The Republic of Korea, or "South Korea" was proclaimed. Meanwhile, in the North, the Soviet Union created an archetype Stalinist system and placed in charge of it a former guerilla fighter and Soviet military captain named Kim Il-Sung, a native of Pyongyang who participated in an anti-Japanese resistance movement in Manchuria. Thus, by September 9th, 1948, the new regime was declared as the Democratic People's Republic of Korea or otherwise "North Korea".
Although the new state was created as a Communist state, built on Stalinist and Marxist-Leninist Doctrine, Kim Il-Sung was in reality a nationalist who was not interested in becoming a puppet of the Soviet Union. The new state was consequentially presented as a national liberation for the Korean people from Japanese control and contrary to popular belief, was celebrated by the local peasantry. Nonetheless, Kim Il-Sung's regime quickly consolidated its power with an iron fist, persecuting Christians, land owners, intellectuals and former Japanese Collaborators. In the first year of the regime, over 800,000 people had fled South, as Lankov comments, the opposition literally exiled itself, leaving behind those who genuinely believed in it. The state proceeded to redstribute land amongst peasants and nationalize industries.
The youthful and inexperienced Kim Jong Un became the youngest leader on the planet. He was given a serious of "regents", trusted and experienced overseers in the Workers Party of Korea to oversee him. Naturally however, they sneered at his youthfulness and apparent naivety. One by one, Kim Jong Un "dealt" with them, some of them were reassigned to different roles or jobs, distant from the core leadership, or, as in the case with his own uncle Jang Song-Thaek, purged and executed. The young Kim had quickly consolidated his power like his predecessors and gave no room for dissent.
Unlike his father and grandfather however, there have been strong differences in Kim Jong Un's rule. In contrast to the selfish and lavish lifestyle of his father, Kim Jong Un has cracked down on inapropriate activities amongst the North Korean leadership (such as the infamous "pleasure squad") and emphasized fidelity to his spouse, embraced an environment of "fun" and entertainment, began attempts at economic reform, attempts to increase tourism and actually showing some care for the country's people. Namely, because as a young leader with a long term perspective to think about, he cannot ignore the prospect of necessary reform if he is to politically survive.
Nonetheless, relations with the United States have remained as hostile as ever and likewise relations with the South have soured. Kim Jong Un has continued his father's legacy of nuclear profileration, initiating nuclear tests in 2013 and 2016- taking North Korea to the "verge of war" against the U.S in 2013. North Korea under his rule has now developed nuclear weapons, although it has not yet gained the capacity to strike the United States.
The result is that North Korea has received increased condemnation and increased U.N sanctions in 2013 and 2016, but still shows little willingless to change its course- yet, given that the United States have continued to remove and attempt to remove regimes from power during this period, North Korea has not seen a reason to change its course. As through its entire history, regime survival has been its sole political priority and this tends to come regardless of any economic and humanitarian costs it may endure on the way. Contrary to popular imagination, North Korea shows no signs of collapsing and no signs of going away. It is here to stay. The nations of the world, including the United States, must learn to work with what they have if they are to improve the security siutation on the Korean peninsula and achieve nuclear disarmament. History shows an obvious legacy that only through less hostility are they going to achieve anything with the DPRK.
Kim Il-Sung in the newly created North Korea, 1948
Although the new state was created as a Communist state, built on Stalinist and Marxist-Leninist Doctrine, Kim Il-Sung was in reality a nationalist who was not interested in becoming a puppet of the Soviet Union. The new state was consequentially presented as a national liberation for the Korean people from Japanese control and contrary to popular belief, was celebrated by the local peasantry. Nonetheless, Kim Il-Sung's regime quickly consolidated its power with an iron fist, persecuting Christians, land owners, intellectuals and former Japanese Collaborators. In the first year of the regime, over 800,000 people had fled South, as Lankov comments, the opposition literally exiled itself, leaving behind those who genuinely believed in it. The state proceeded to redstribute land amongst peasants and nationalize industries.
The Korean War
The 38th parallel just prior to the Korean war
There were now two Korean states, but only one Korean nation; two rival governments who did not recognize the legitimacy of the other and claimed the right to rule over the entire Korean peninsula. This was problematic, its doubtful many today would accept it if their own nations were randomly sliced into two abruptly by external powers. Because of this unatural scenario, tensions between the two governments were toxic from day one. The result was rising military hostilities which resulted in a series of military provocations from both sides across the 38th parralel. Before the war proper began, the two Koreas were already in a state of war and very eager to attack the other. The conventional account is how "Kim Il-Sung one day started the war his own", but the reality is much more complex than that. As Bruce Cumings highlights in his work, "Origins of the Korean War", the Korean war is more accurately depicted as a civil war which gradually unfolded into a full scale conflict (It is important to note in the eyes of both sides at the time, it was the nation against itself and not- nation against nation).
Nonetheless, from these cross border skirmishes, it was indeed Kim Il-Sung who proceeded to launch a full scale invasion of the South and start the Korean war as it is known to be. Determined to consolidate his political and national legitimacy, survival and power, Kim Il-Sung had been eager to invade the South from day one, but had to rest upon the approval of Joseph Stalin, who feared an American military response against his own regime. But, by 1950 the Soviet Union had developed its own Atomic bomb, allowing it to create a sufficient deterrent against potential American attacks; which softened Stalin's position. Likewise, in neighbouring China, the Chinese Communist Party led by Mao Zedong had come to power, securing an additional strategic backing for both the USSR and the Soviet Union. Stalin gave the green light (or maybe the red one in this case?)
American newspaper depicts the North Korean invasion of the South
Thus, on the 25th June, 1950, Kim Il-Sung launched an invasion of the South and, due to the conventional superiority of the North Korean forces at the time and prior military experience, overran most of South Korea in a matter of days. Seoul fell, and the South Korean forces were pushed back to a corner in the Southern point of the Korean peninsula known as the Pusan perimeter. North Korean victory seemed almost certain, until the game changed...
North Korean troops achieving victory over the South
The United States, fearing the spread of Communism due to the newly emerging Cold War, perceived the Korean conflict in the eyes of Communist aggression and sought to intervene. The U.S appealed to the United Nations (whom due to a boycott by the Soviet ambassador), authorized a U.N approved coalition to challenge the North Korean forces in the South. Thus, the United States, joined by a team of other western nations, including the United Kingdom, France, The Netherlands, Canada, New Zealand and Australia, intervened in the Korean war. The North's hold on the South was shattered by the Incheon landing of September 1950 on the west coast. Very quickly, the US led coalition easily overcame the North Korean army and pushed them out of the South. However, it didn't end there, the U.S forces were determined to destroy the North Korean regime altogether and advanced North. By October 19th, Pyongyang had been captured and the North Korean forces were sent fleeing towards the Chinese border.
Chinese forces crossing the Yalu river into North Korrea
The dramatic turn in the war however, did not go unnoticed. In neighbouring China, the idea of a unified, American led Korea became extremely alarming to the newly emerged Chinese Communist state still feeling insecure in its international environment. In the Chinese view, the western intervention in the Korean war was unwarranted and itself was perceived as an act of aggression. Mao saw as it as an attempt to strategically contain and entrap China from the United States. As the war tumbled towards the Chinese border, action was needed. After a series of emergency meetings, Mao authorized over 300,000 Chinese troops to cross the Yalu river into North Korea and then on October 25th, Chinese soldiers launched a full scale assault against the UN coalition, assuming full command of what was left of the North Korean forces.
Military map of the various offensives and events during the Korean War
The Chinese attack took the western coalition by surprise and forced them to retreat all the way back into the South, ceding Pyongyang and Seoul along the way. However, the Chinese were unable to re-take the South and soon Western forces re-took Seoul, but were likewise unable to advance back into the North. The result is that the war soon became a stalemate roughly around the area it had begun in the 38th parralel. After 2 years of relatively static fighting, the contending sides agreed to an armistice at Panmunjon village (although not a formal peace treaty). The North had failed in its objective to take the South and likewise, the United States had failed in its objective to conquer North Korea. Chairman Mao had saved Kim Il-Sung's regime, something of course never acknowledged in the official North Korean narrative... the situation of two Korean states, who did not recognize the other, remained; although this time, due to the military balance of power held by China on one side and the U.S on the other, the war did not resume again (despite both Koreas desiring it).
Signing of the Armistice agreement in Panmunjom
Juche and consolidation of Power
Traumatized by his failure to re-take the South and his vulnerability against America, Kim Il-Sung dramatically sought to consolidate his domestic power against now discontended internal factions. This meant eliminating his political opponents and likeise strategically adjusting the state so that it was not subject to external influences. Kim moved against factions in his leadership who were sympathetic to Mao and Stalin, executing, purging and banishing; then proceeding to build a cult of personality around himself. He also sought to secure his own ideological grip, creating what is known as the "Juche" ideology or "self-reliance", a highly nationalistic brand of socialism, emphasizing national independence, to seperate North Korea from the influences of Chinese and Soviet Communism. Diplomatically, Kim Il-Sung then sought to "play" both powers against each other occupying an ambiguous position, jumping between both sides to extract aid and literally getting "the best of both worlds". At least for the 60s and 70s, it allowed North Korea to prosper more than any other state in the Communist world and even more than South Korea itself.
Kim Il-Sung constructed a cult of personality around himself
By the 1967s, Kim Il-Sung had purged all of his political rivalies inside his government and the Workers Party of Korea, creating a scenario whereby only absolute loyalty to himsellf was politically acceptable. Buoyed by the successes of North Vietnam against the South, he tried to initiate several insurgencies, provocations and attacks to damage the South Korean regime, all of these would prove unsuccessful. However, this superiority over the South wasn't going to last. By the 1970s, the scenario began to change, the North Korean economy began to slow down, the South Korean economy began to surge; soon enough it had evolved into one of the world's leading economies. The North was left behind and not only that, the wider international environment was about to change dramatically...
Juche Tower- a monument to North Korea's national ideology
Decline and isolation
Kim Il Sung's entire diplomatic strategy revolved around using both the USSR and China to his advantage. As well as that, North Korea also had a range of allies and partners in the Eastern European communist bloc, such as East Germany, Romania and Czechoslovakia. But suddenly, the world changed. There wasn't a Soviet Union anymore, there wasn't an East Germany anymore and so on, the majority of the Communist world collapsed in late 1980s and North Korea was left behind. The new Russian state, led by the pro-western Boris Yeltsin, wasn't interested in North Korea; he soon cut off aid and support. Likewise, China, who had since reapproached America and now, due to its growing market economy, was now more interested in trade and relations with the South and was resultantly, less sympathetic. Overnight, North Korea's entire support system vanished. As a system not willing to embrace reform and open up, it was left behind on its own in a world which now no longer reflected its way of thinking.
The result was that trade ceased and the North Korean economy collapsed. It literally stopped functioning. Factories and industries had nothing to produce and nothing to sell. The stubborness and insecurity of the North Korean authorities led them to refuse to do anything about it. Employees were literally made instead to turn up to work and do nothing. As trade stopped, so did the imports of essential farming goods such as fertilizers, consequentially, North Korean agriculture likewise collapsed and food production plummeted. This was then combined with a series of unfortunate floods, ensuring the onset of a great famine which led to the deaths of millions. Whilst the North Korean authorities did request food aid from other countries, they kept quiet the extent of the famine and denied aid workers broad access, directing the aid to Pyongyang's elite population and leaving the rural populations to perish.
The North Korean system was plunged into poverty in the 1990s
Thus, the impoverished North Korea we know today emerged in the 80s and 90s. The Stalinist model economy North Korea created had failed its people and ceased to function. The result was the rise of an informal "black market" economy whereby people traded themselves privately in small markets. This allowed people to find their own way of surviving and getting by without relying on the state and its "public distribution system" of rationing, although this hardly contributed an "affluent" society. Even to the present day, North Korea's economy has never been the same since this crash.
Kim Jong Il
During this period of decline and devastation in the 1990s, Kim Il-Sung died at the age of 82. Previously however, to consolidate his power, he had appointed an official "heir", his son Kim Jong-Il. This was not a straight forward process, Kim Jong-Il himself had struggled against factional enemies and other choices, seemingly making quick work of them politically
Kim Jong-Il took the reigns and quickly built a cult of personality around himself in a similar manner that of his father. Because North Korea was now in an international environment almost universally hostile towards it, he introduced a military based diplomatic strategy known as "Songgun" (Military First), directing the majority of the country's resources towards militarization and likewise considered a nuclear weapons program. Such a strateg was also used to consolidate his own political power than using the conventional channels of the workers party. The situation had changed North Korea was no longer focusing on attempting to take back the South (which had now became a 1st world, wealthy, developed nation), it was rather seeking to avoid its own collapse. Due to the country's weaknesses nonetheless, Kim Jong Il improved relations with a number of states in the 1990s, opening up a number of diplomatic relationships and making temporary breakthroughs with America, who were able to persuade him to put off his nuclear ambitions with a landmark 1994 nuclear deal. Nonetheless, Kim Jong-Il cared little for the North Korean people and as stated above, done virtually nothing to aid their starving and impoverished conditions in the 1990s whilst he lived a life of lasciviousness and luxury.
This "breakthrough" with the U.S did not last very long. On september 11th, 2001, the world changed again and the United States, shaken by the horrors of the 9/11 attacks, assumed a hostile policy again towards North Korea with Preisdent George W. Bush branding the state as part of an "axis of evil" and assuming a foreign policy which involved advocating a number of forceful regime changes around the world, including the controversial invasion of Iraq in 2003. The consequences of these American decisions led North Korea to retreat back into insecurity and isolation, further resist change and return to a policy of nuclear profileration. Against America, North Korea feared for its existence and believed the only way to survive was to secure a nuclear deterrent, whilst threatening conflict in order to blackmail financial aid and support than to consider serious economic change. By 2006, North Korea conducted its first nuclear test, which drew international condemnation and sanctions from the United Nations.
Under Kim Jong-Il, the system completed its transition from "Communism" to becoming a fully "Juche" state as Kim Il-Sung had intended it to be. As Communism had lost all legitimacy due to the end of the Cold War, North Korea finished its gradual evolution towards nationalism through the mantle of the Juche ideology. All references to Karl Marx, Vladimir Lenin and even the word "Communism", were removed from the country and history revised as if it had always been that way. Instead, it became steadily steeped in nationalist symbolism with new approaches and interest towards Korean history in order to claim newlegitimacy amongst its people.
Kim Jong-Un
Kim Jong-Il's health began to fail towards the end of the first decade of 21st century and a result, he himself appointed a successor. His original choice had been his oldest son Kim Jong-Nam, however, he fell out of favour through an illicit attempt to visit Disneyland in Japa and thus he turned to his 2nd son to continue his legacy, the youthful Kim Jong-Un. Kim Jong Un was given a series of promotions, made a Marshall in the Korean People's Army army and soon was appointed as the "official successor". Kim Jong Il then died of a heart attack in late 2011, leaving the regime to his son to assume power at the age of just 29.
Kim Jong Un with his "regents" during his father's funeral
Unlike his father and grandfather however, there have been strong differences in Kim Jong Un's rule. In contrast to the selfish and lavish lifestyle of his father, Kim Jong Un has cracked down on inapropriate activities amongst the North Korean leadership (such as the infamous "pleasure squad") and emphasized fidelity to his spouse, embraced an environment of "fun" and entertainment, began attempts at economic reform, attempts to increase tourism and actually showing some care for the country's people. Namely, because as a young leader with a long term perspective to think about, he cannot ignore the prospect of necessary reform if he is to politically survive.
Nonetheless, relations with the United States have remained as hostile as ever and likewise relations with the South have soured. Kim Jong Un has continued his father's legacy of nuclear profileration, initiating nuclear tests in 2013 and 2016- taking North Korea to the "verge of war" against the U.S in 2013. North Korea under his rule has now developed nuclear weapons, although it has not yet gained the capacity to strike the United States.
The result is that North Korea has received increased condemnation and increased U.N sanctions in 2013 and 2016, but still shows little willingless to change its course- yet, given that the United States have continued to remove and attempt to remove regimes from power during this period, North Korea has not seen a reason to change its course. As through its entire history, regime survival has been its sole political priority and this tends to come regardless of any economic and humanitarian costs it may endure on the way. Contrary to popular imagination, North Korea shows no signs of collapsing and no signs of going away. It is here to stay. The nations of the world, including the United States, must learn to work with what they have if they are to improve the security siutation on the Korean peninsula and achieve nuclear disarmament. History shows an obvious legacy that only through less hostility are they going to achieve anything with the DPRK.
